Snow survey stories from NRCS

[mbsieg]

CABIN FEVER
Anytime I tell a new acquaintance about my job as the Snow Survey Supervisor in
Colorado, one of the most frequent comments I get is something to the effect of
"Boy! That sure sounds like a great job." It's true. There are many days in the field
when you're quietly saying to yourself, "Am I really getting paid to do this"? But
then, there are also a lot of those other days, when you're saying, "Am I going to
make it through all this?"
One of those occasions happened to a couple of my co-workers back when I was in
my first year on the job. We had a SNOTEL site that was not reporting data and we
needed to visit the site for repairs. SNOTEL sites are remote data collection stations
that collect daily meteorological data that are used for everything from producing
water supply forecasts, to tracking Caribou herd migrations, and everything in
between. These sites use ionized meteor trails to send data back to our master
stations back on earth…but, that’s another story. Earl Halseth was our Electronics
Technician, whose job was to try to solve the electronic mysteries of meteor-burst
radio telemetry. Ken Jones was our Water Supply Forecast Hydrologist and had the
best knowledge of the site route and location. Me… I was just tagging along to try to
lend a hand and try to learn as much as I could.
We took snowmobiles out to the trailhead, pulled by two pick-up trucks. The day
was a normal February day; a clear sky, sunny, but cold temperatures. At the
trailhead, we backed the trailers in and uncovered the snowmobiles. That's always
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov March 13, 2006
SNOTEL site in Summer SNOTEL site in Winter
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when the fun begins… right? Wrong! In typical fickle snowmobile fashion, we had a
tough time getting the engines to start. The cold temperatures sure weren't helping
things. Finally, after choking the carburetors, flooding the engines, checking fuel
lines, and pulling spark plugs, we managed to get a machine running. Time
continued to pass into late morning, and we finally got another machine to start.
Now, with two snowmobiles running, and noon just around the corner, it was
decision time. Should we continue to waste the day trying to get the third machine
running, or just send Earl and Ken into the site with the two running machines? The
answer was a pretty obvious. If we wanted the site fixed that day, Ken and Earl had
better hit the trail, since it was a two hour trip into the site. So, I stood at the
trailhead and enviously watched them take off up the trail. I returned to town in one
of the trucks, leaving the other at the trailhead for them to take when they returned.
Later that night, about 8:00 o'clock, the phone rings and it's Ken's wife on the line.
"Do you know where Ken's at? He's usually home by now," she said. My response
was something wise, like "Are you kidding?" I look out the window at the pitch black
sky and I'm thinking "Something’s gone terribly wrong. They should have been back
several hours ago." Then, coming to my senses, I tell Ken's wife "Don't worry,
they'll probably be home soon, today's trip was just a typical repair visit. But, better
call the county sheriff's office if they're not back soon. Give me a call when they get
back, just so I'll know everything's OK."
About 10:30pm the phone rings again. It was Ken's wife… again. I was hoping it
was Ken instead. "Ken's still not back, and I called the sheriff's office, she said.
They said they'd get the Search and Rescue out to look for them first thing in the
morning." I try to console her, but she seems quite accepting of the predicament.
"I'm not worried. He's been trained in what to do when this kind of thing happens”,
she said. I was wishing, at the time, that I felt as confident, and in a weird way was
feeling guilty that I was not out there to help in some way.
I didn't sleep very well that night, laying there wondering what went wrong. Was
someone hurt, freezing, what? Morning finally came, and I got my things ready in
case the sheriff's office needed my help to show them to the trailhead, give
descriptions of their snowmobiles and gear, etc.
I was to meet the search and rescue group at the trailhead bright and early. My
boss and I drove out there ready to help in whatever way we could. Not long after
we arrived there, we could hear snowmobile engines off in the distance and they
were getting closer. In a couple of minutes the two lost snow surveyors showed up
on the machines. They were all smiles after a good night's sleep. I was relieved and
couldn't believe it. "What happened", I asked.
It turns out the weather turned into a whiteout as they got near the site. They
couldn't see more than several yards ahead of themselves as they tried to find the
site. After a while, they come upon a set of snowmobile tracks. Without knowing
what to do next, they decide to follow the tracks. After following this unknown
snowmobiler a while, they take a look around and realized they had been here
before. They were following their own tracks, and were going in circles. Realizing
that they were in trouble, they made a last ditch effort to try to backtrack back to
town.
After a short while, Ken looks off to the side and sees a dark object. He takes a
chance and rides the snowmobile over toward the object. As he gets closer he
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
realizes it's a cabin. They both went up onto the porch and knocked on the door. Of
course, no one was home there. It had to be just a summer cabin. It was late
afternoon, and they realized they only had maybe another hour of daylight left. It
was hopeless to think that they'd be able to find their way back to the truck that
night. It was just a simple choice, either find a place to build a snow cave, or find a
way to get inside the cabin.
It turned out to be a fairly simple task to stick a knife blade into the window edge
and flip the hasp open. The window slid open easily at that point, and they were
inside. Looking around, they found just about everything they needed for the night;
a couple of cots with blankets, a wood stove, and even a box of Macaroni and
Cheese.
The next morning dawned clear and sunny. The previous night's storm had dropped
only about 6" of new snow, but in typical Wyoming fashion, most of it was traveling
horizontally by a strong northern wind. Ken and Earl got on their snowmobiles and
rode back to the trailhead without incident, arriving just in time to meet us and the
Search and Rescue Team.
In retrospect, it seemed like Ken and Earl's luck changed quickly for the better when
they found that cabin. From their story, it sounded like they had gotten a more
restful night than I had.
Mike Gillespie
NRCS, Data Collection Office Supervisor
Denver, Colorado

 

[mbsieg]

Welcome to the first of many tales, facts and figures from the Snow Survey
Programs Centennial Year! What, you may ask, is a Snow Survey and why does it
belong in NRCS? Why is Snow Survey having a Centennial when NRCS isn’t? Well,
here is the introduction to the Snow Survey Program, AKA CO45.
Snow Surveying was first invented in the late 1800's in several different locales and
it is difficult to ascertain exactly who was first. In the United States a Professor of
Philosophy at the University of Nevada, Reno named Dr. James E. Church brought
the fledgling technology from Russia, Germany and Switzerland in 1906 to the Lake
Tahoe region to solve a vexing problem - the prediction and hence the wise
management of a very limited and often fought over regional Water Supply.
Dr. James E. Church, near Mt Rose - the birthplace of modern day Snow Surveying.
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov January 2, 2006
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The Lake Tahoe Water Wars provide insight to the importance of water in the
western United States and the ability to predict water supply, reduced tension
throughout the region. Dr. Church connected the dots between seasonal runoff and
snowpack. Being able to systematically measure snow across a watershed would
yield the ability to predict seasonal water supply. Hence, the birth of Snow Surveys.
A Snow Survey today is much the same as it was in 1906, systematically measuring
snow depth and water equivalent at specific locations called snow courses. Today,
they are typically measured three to five times per year and are accessed via
snowshoes, skis, snowmobiles, snow cat or helicopter.
Trial Lake Snow Course, 9,960 ft elevation in Utah, May, 2005.
The Program has grown from the early days of collecting a few thousand data points
per year to a highly technical endeavor involving the remote sensing of snow depth,
water equivalent, temperature, precipitation, soil moisture, soil temperature and
other parameters on an hourly basis, which now yields tens of millions of data points
annually. These data are the foundation for not only Agricultural interest in water,
but for the operation of dams, flood forecasting, hydroelectric power generation,
recreational interests such as skiing, rafting, snowmobiling, boating as well as the
eclectic and strange … mushroom collection to the futures market in natural gas and
electricity. In future issues of the "Snow Survey Centennial Celebration" we will bring
you the fascinating history of this remarkable program, including stories and pictures
of actual surveys, helicopter accidents, avalanches, moose attacks, economic
analyses, floods, droughts, saving the farm and even death. We hope that you are
educated as well as thoroughly entertained by our history, the current program and
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our passion for all things Snow and Water. We are constantly pinching ourselves and
asking the question … “We get paid for this?”
Welcome to the Snow Survey Centennial Celebration!
Randy Julander
Snow Survey Supervisor
Salt Lake City, Utah

 

[mbsieg]

Snow surveys are often done in some of the most beautiful locations in the United
States. Serene mountain meadows and canyons with high soaring peaks towering
nearby are often the norm for a snow course setting. Throw in snow covered tree
bows and shimmering white peaks against a clear blue sky… It is a vision fit for a
holiday greeting card. What could be better! While the setting is beautiful, the
environment is often remote, wild, and harsh, where the unexpected is almost
always expected. Extremely cold temperatures, biting winds, steep terrain, snow
and rain all contribute to the likelihood of mechanical breakdowns, personal injuries,
getting lost and other mishaps that can make the most routine day turn into a
struggle for survival. Even during ideal conditions, the work can be exhausting,
making it very difficult to measure snowpack conditions consistently and as
accurately as possible.
Because of the extreme environment in which the snow surveyors conducts their
work, it is vitally important that they receive the best possible training in both
outdoor survival skills and snow survey measurements. Since 1950, snow surveyors
have been receiving training through the West Wide Snow Survey Training School.
This intense course is held annually by the Natural Resources Conservation Service
and is a requirement for NRCS personnel new to the snow survey program, and is a
refresher course for those already in the program.
Most of the students are NRCS surveyors, but many come from cooperating agencies
and private organizations that contribute to the snow data collection activity. Usually,
all of the western states are represented and often students attend from Canada or
other countries wishing to gain the knowledge and insight from the NRCS program,
to take back to their own snow survey program.
Although the snow survey program has undergone many changes and advancements
since the first snow survey school was held in 1950, the intent and the curriculum of
the school has remained nearly the same. At the 1962 Snow School, held at Winter
Park, Colorado, R. A. Work, then Head of the SCS, Water Supply Forecasting Unit in
Portland, Oregon, gave an introduction and welcome speech to the students. The
words he used to describe the school are as prevalent today as they were back then.
The following is an excerpt from that speech given 44 years ago.
“ The Administrator’s purpose in authorizing and supporting this meeting is to
provide to each of us, trainees and observers alike, an opportunity to learn and
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov March 20, 2006
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improve ourselves in the manual and mental skills of snow surveying. It is the
Service’s desire that you each gain a basic and possibly better understanding, of the
reasons for doing your snow survey job. It is the policy of the Department that we
each be provided with the best training possible in winter safety.
The Soil Conservation Service is proud of the safety record which has been achieved
and maintained in snow surveys. There have now been 21 preceding winter seasons
in the activity in the Service’s sphere of activity without a fatal accident. We are
firmly confident that this will prove the 22nd consecutive season without heartbreak
to the family and colleagues of those in field snow survey ranks. You can help make
it so for yourself and for those with whom you work, by close consideration and
application of the rules for personal conduct during your winter trips in the
mountains.
Some one snow surveyor, perhaps one of you men here, before long will travel the
millionth over–snow mile, and I earnestly hope this goal will be reached without fatal
accident. Your predecessors, including some of your instructors here, have built this
durable record with skilled and sound guidance. You are the men who will continue
and enhance it. I know you each will take pride in being a part of this snow survey
team – as much pride in doing a good job the safe way as the Administrator and his
line and staff officers take in being associated with you men in the effort.
The Federal-State-Private Cooperative Snow Survey Team brings together
technicians from Canada and the United States in a common effort. It brings
together the snow surveyors of California, who work under the guidance and
coordination of the State’s Department of Water Resources, and those of SCS and
many other cooperating agencies. In 1960-61 there were more than 100 men –yes,
and some women, too --- on this elite team. They all practiced the things we are
here to study together – accuracy in sampling, uses of snow survey data in
forecasting, winter survival, travel tricks, first aid, and many other parts of your job.”
Since 1950 there have been 43 Snow Survey Schools. They have been held at a
variety of locations spread across the west, and most of the western states have
hosted it at one time or another. In the earlier years the school was held
irregularly, often skipping years, but over time it evolved into an annual event and
has been held every year since 1977.
WESTWIDE SNOW SURVEY TRAINING SCHOOL LOCATIONS
1950 Odd Fellows Hall Ketchum, Idaho
1951
1952
1953
1954 --- McCall, Idaho
1955
1956 --- Alta, Utah
1957
1958 Eagles Lodge Jackson Hole, Wyoming
1959
1960 Timberline Lodge Mount Hood, Oregon
1961
1962 --- Winter Park, Colorado
1963 Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado
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1964 Olympic Village Squaw Valley, California
1965
1966 The Big Mountain Whitefish, Montana
1967
1968
1969 The Hostel Teton Village, Wyoming
1970
1971 C’est Bon Park City, Utah
1972
1973 Buttermilk Ski Area Aspen, Colorado
1974
1975* Huntley Lodge Big Sky, Montana
1976
1977* Sahara Tahoe Stateline, Nevada
1978 Silver Skis Chalet Crystal Mountain, WA
1979 Teton Village Wilson, Wyoming
1980* Timberline Lodge Mount Hood, Oregon
1981* Raquet Club Village Park City, Utah
1982* Shore Lodge McCall, Idaho
1983* Huntley Lodge Big Sky, Montana
1984* Raquet Club Village Park City, Utah
1985 Raquet Club Village Park City, Utah
1986* Raquet Club Village Park City, Utah
1987* Raquet Club Village Park City, Utah
1988* Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
1989* Huntley Lodge Big Sky, Montana
1990* Keystone Resort Keystone, Colorado
1991* Inn Of The Seventh Mountain Bend, Oregon
1992* Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
1993* Prospector Square Hotel Park City, Utah
1994* Inn Of The Seventh Mountain Bend, Oregon
1995* Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
1996* Yellowstone Conf. Center Big Sky, Montana
1997* Inn At Silver Creek Silver Creek, Colorado
1998* Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
1999* Inn Of The Seventh Mountain Bend, Oregon
2000* Daniels Summit Lodge Heber City, Utah
2001* Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
2002 Mount Bachelor Village Bend, Oregon
2003 Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
2004 Mount Bachelor Village Bend, Oregon
2005 Granlibakken Conf. Center Tahoe City, California
2006 Mount Bachelor Village Bend, Oregon
The Snow Survey Training School strives to give a good basic knowledge of the
entire scope and purpose of snow surveys, but the overwhelming emphasis focuses
on two aspects which are safety/survival and data collection. The course is nearly
five full days, during which, about half of the time is classroom presentations and the
other half is outdoor field exercises and presentations.
Safety topics are usually presented by professional experts in the particular topics.
These presentations tend to be very dramatic and effective in demonstrating the
potential for disaster in the outdoors. Topics such as avalanche awareness,
wilderness survival, survival gear, and wilderness first aid, all teach students how to
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avoid being caught of guard in the outdoors and how to survive when the
unexpected happens. Not surprisingly, these are usually the most popular portions of
the course.
Early on it was decided to add an overnight bivouac to the agenda. This is a field
exercise in which the students are required to carry their own survival equipment to
a selected outdoor location, build a survival shelter, and remain outside until the
following morning. The students gain knowledge and experience with their over snow
equipment, shelter construction, proper clothing and layering, and most
importantly… they gain the confidence that they can remain outside during extremely
cold conditions, and survive in reasonable comfort by being prepared and using
natural materials available to help stay warm and dry.
1960’s Bivouac 2006 Bivouac
Much of the course is focused on the specifics of data collection. Topics covered
include sampling techniques, note taking, care for the sampling equipment, data use,
and more. This training includes outdoor demonstrations of the proper techniques
and procedures for sampling snow at a snow course, as well as spending an
afternoon practicing sampling and taking notes.
Other topics covered during the week are intended to give the students an
understanding of why the data are important and what it is used for. They include
history of snow surveying, stream flow forecasting procedures and uses of snow
survey data and products.
1957 over snow Machines Demonstration 2006 Over Snow Machine Demonstration
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For the 100 years that snow surveying has been around, the snow survey school has
been there for 56 of them. It continues to be an extremely important educational
experience for new snow surveyors as well as seasoned veterans that need a
refresher. The school can be credited for helping to ensure that the snow surveys are
done by highly motivated people who are capable of collecting data as consistently
and accurately as possible. It also helps insure that the snow surveyors are capable
to determine when conditions are too dangerous, and competent enough to survive
in the harsh environment that they are required to work in.
Over the past 25 years, the snow survey program has evolved into a more
automated network, yet the importance of the school remains as strong today as
ever… and for much the same reasons that it was important 50 years ago. Manual
surveys will continue to be important for areas that automated equipment is not
allowed or not practical to install. They are also important as ground truths for the
automated data sites. Automated sites often require onsite visits, which continue to
subject the people visiting those sites to the same outdoor environment that the
surveyors dealt with 100 years ago. Although there have been huge technological
advancements in communications and over snow travel equipment, entering the
backcountry can still be as dangerous as ever.
In 100 years not one life has been lost while performing snow survey activities. This
is remarkable, considering the remote, harsh environment, and the number of
surveyors and their numerous site visits over the years. The continuation of the
snow survey training school will be an important step in making sure the next 100
years are just as safe.
1956 Snow School, Alta Utah 2006 Snow School, Bend Oregon
Tony Tolsdorf
Hydrologist, National Water and Climate Center
Portland, Oregon

 

[mbsieg]

History of Data Collection on Mt. Rose, Nevada1
Snow Science on Mount Rose in Nevada begins as all good things in Nature involving
man should… with an adventure. In 1895, a young professor of the classics, newly
arrived from the University of Michigan, braved the cold and snow and climbed to the
10,800 foot summit of Mount Rose overlooking Reno on one side and Lake Tahoe on
the other. That climb was made not because the individual was an avid scientist in
search of some truth, but because he was an enthusiastic winter mountaineer. By
the way, the young professor was the first white man to stand on the summit of
Mount Rose. But as with all good things, it was the beginning of a scientific study
that has proven invaluable to millions of Westerners.
The young professor, Dr. James E. Church, made several more trips to the Mount
Rose summit, including an important one in 1904 with his wife that somehow opened
his eyes to another possible adventure. Dr. Church saw an opportunity, an excuse
really, to travel to Mount Rose during the summer and winter, enjoying his outings
and gathering scientific information to boot.
Professor Alexander McAdie, a meteorologist at Harvard University, had discovered
that the positioning of minimum thermometers at high elevation mountain tops could
be used with some accuracy to predict frost at valley locations. The failure of being
able to place a thermometer at the summit of Mount Whitney for these
measurements prompted the look for an alternative. It was this discovery of the
availability of an enthusiastic Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station that provided
funding of $500.00 (Adams Act) and a forceful, enthusiastic Dr. Church who would
place the thermometers and other equipment to make other measurements on
Mount Rose.
Dr. Church’s first concern was the fact that the $500.00 would be insufficient to
provide for all the construction needed along with the instrumentation. Dr. Church
arranged for mostly volunteer work to install the equipment. The volunteers included
Professor J.R. Johnson and Professor Singleton Charnock, excavator and carpenter
respectively, Professor C. L. Brown, Captain Robert M. Brambila and Frankie Folsom,
professional packers, and finally, but most certainly not least, Florence Humphrey
Church as the cook and sometimes recorder. Mrs. Church often contributed articles
to the Sierra Club Bulletin describing the outings and adventures. Dr. Church also
arranged for the contribution of horses, saddles and other packing equipment from
D. C. Wheeler, Henry Anderson, and O. F. Mitchell, along with Dr. Church’s own
horses. That left the food and supplies, instrumentation and construction materials to
be paid for from the $500.00 budget.
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov April 3, 2006
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The installation at the summit of Mount Rose included a ventilated temperature
shelter, an observation building in the shape of a small ship’s cabin, including plate
glass windows for observation and a precipitation gage that included a 30 gallon
storage tank 30 inches in diameter and 48 inches high that had a 20 foot tall, 8 inch
diameter intake pipe. The intake was blown over in the winter of 1908 during the
storm of November 25 through 27.
Observatory sketch from construction drawings – Report Bulletin No. 67-June 1908.
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The installation of the precipitation gage was a major challenge. The storage tank
had to be installed below ground to prevent freezing. To accomplish this task, the
crew drilled and dynamited 10 feet into bed rock. This process took most of the
spring and summer. On the initial trip to the summit with building materials,
including the precipitation storage tank, a gale blew the tank over to a horizontal
position on the horse’s side. The tank was freed but, as described by Dr. Church,
“The tank leaped down the talus slope coming to rest in some scrub pines.” It
remained there until the autumn when the tank installation was finished.
The measurements taken upon completion of the observatory, included maximum
and minimum temperature, wind speed, wind direction, precipitation, and
measurements of snow depth and water equivalent at numerous sites down Mount
Rose on the Reno side. Initially the measurement of water in the snow was done by
snow samples taken in a coffee tin and then melted to determine the amount of
water.
Other observations were taken with each visit, which included humidity and other
climatic observations. Each visit to the summit lasted from 10 to 14 days and
included all of these measurements. A second precipitation measurement location
was installed on the ridge just above the current snow survey cabin and also
included a 30 gallon sunken tank and 20 foot long intake pipe. The location was
approximately at the half way point on the original snow course that was set up for
sampling down Mount Rose.
The measurement of snow water equivalent with the Mount Rose Snow Sampler did
not occur until the winter of 1909, taking some two years to develop.
What drove the Professor to measure snow? Interestingly, it was primarily an
argument involving loggers, Dr. Church and Gifford Pinchot that inspired Church to
measure the snow. The loggers contended that cutting the thirsty timbers helped
increase the Tahoe basin's snow pack. Church disagreed, claiming that the Tahoe's
giant conifers had no negative affect on water content. His invention helped him win
the argument. As snow courses were set up around the basin and the focus of the
program was more directed to the snow course measurements and water supply
forecasts, the use of the observatory and its instrumentation declined. The cost of
maintaining the observatory and all of its measurements eventually became too
expensive. A high point in the development of the observatory was the application of
automated strip charting devises developed and provided by Leupold and Stevens of
Beaverton, Oregon. Leupold and Stevens is famous for rifle scopes and binoculars.
Jim Marron
Hydrologist
Portland, Oregon
1Special Credit: This week’s article content and attached photos were obtained from
the James E. Church Archives, located in the Special Collections Department at the
University of Nevada – Reno Library. A special thanks to Jacquelyn Sundstrand
(Manuscripts/Archives Librarian) and the rest of the Special Collections Department
staff.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 4
Following are pictures showing the pack animals and materials take to the summit of Mount
Rose by Pack animal. Note the dents in the storage can, caused from its “leap”.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 5
Following is a picture of the installation on the summit of Mount Rose.

 

[mbsieg]

Water Supply Forecasting through the Ages
From 1947-1972, a trade publication called the “Snow Surveyor’s Forum” was published,
covering a range of topics from tips on the maintenance and field repair of equipment like
wooden skis and snow tubes to sharing real-life tales of hijinks and high adventure in the
wilderness. Often in the form of cartoons or humorous verse, this forum contained no
shortage of roasts and ribbings of the main user of the snow data they were collecting,
namely water supply forecasters.
Exhibit A. Graphical depiction of modern forecast technology (Snow Surveyor’s Forum, 1957). The Nevada
Cooperative Snow Survey program representative (right) seems unimpressed.
One imagines the archetypical hydrologist in a white lab-coat tinkering on his latest data
taffy-puller, a cacophonous gonkulator capable of stretching two weekends worth of
measurements into a 30-year normal. During data collection time he could be found in a
smoking jacket and fez, dozing off in the comfort of a wingback study chair by a crackling
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fireplace, holiday nog in hand and a golden Labrador napping at his feet. While visions of
scatterplots danced in the forecaster’s head, hundreds of miles away, shivering in the sleet,
the grizzled snow surveyor scrambles up a ponderosa pine to escape the ravenous family of
bears circling below.
While fezzes have gone out of style among most hydrologists, a prime directive of the
operational community remains finding ways to gain the most accurate assessment of basin
moisture conditions in the shortest amount of time, with the least amount of “busy work.”
Back in the day, developing forecasts and equations must have been tedious with its
hundreds of manual calculations, the equivalent of carrying each number up and down the
mountain by hand. In the 1950s, it took a hired school teacher an entire summer, day in
and day out, to develop nine forecasting equations. Today, a modern hydrologist might
have more than 900 equations in his or her roster.
For 100 years now, snow surveyors have repeated a ritual of braving winter conditions to
measure high-elevation moisture in rugged terrain. In almost every climate of the Western
US, a steady beat of data throughout the season provides a rising signal of things to come.
As this sound draws nearer and clearer in spring, it becomes increasingly evident whether it
is a song of jubilation or chords of a minor tone. One group of surveyors arrives at a site
with bare ground in April for the first time in 75 years and knows that the community must
be warned of imminent shortage. However, when the snow tube plunges to an unexpected
depth, it could foreshadow bountiful crops or raging torrents. The mission of the hydrologist
is to convert these impressions into quantitative guidance on anticipated streamflows.
Exhibit B. Montana Snow Survey Supervisor Ashton “Ash” Codd busy water supply forecasting. The model of the
rotary pinwheel calculator indicates circa 1915, although carbon dating of the photograph suggests 1952. Original
caption observes “No wonder now and then he is a bit short of water with such a short calculator”. Mr. Codd also
developed and built the first “Sno-Bug”, the predecessor of the modern-day snowmobile.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
From the early beginning
As you read in the most recent Centennial newsletter, not five years after the first snow
surveys were made around Lake Tahoe, James Church was urged by the Sierra Pacific
Power Company to advise about the possibility of high flows in 1911. Horace Boardman,
professor of civil engineering at the University of Nevada, developed the forecasting
equations relating snowpack and streamflow. The forecasts were well received until 1915-
1916: the first “busted” forecast. A near complete absence of spring precipitation caused a
divergence between the forecast and observed streamflow of 50%. So too was born the first
irate water supply forecast user, who would have seen the entire snow surveying enterprise
sold off for scrap were it not for the cooler heads that prevailed.
From 1917-29, six snow survey programs developed across the western US, each region
producing its own water supply forecasts. According to a survey in 1934, the most common
forecasting method was to relate snowpack to streamflow directly by percent of normal
(e.g. “134 percent of normal snowpack on April 1st means 134 percent of normal
streamflow this summer”). Some more ambitious hydrologists tried to swiss cheese the
watersheds with snow measurements to estimate the total volume of snow (both depth and
area), although it is unclear whether it was the low forecast skill or an insurrection on behalf
of those that were forced to collect the data that eventually did this technique in.
After snow surveying and forecasting responsibility was put in the hands of the Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS - then called the Soil Conservation Service) in the
mid-1930s, the merits and ease of regression-based statistical procedures were increasingly
appreciated, especially by the 1950s. The National Weather Service (NWS) began
forecasting in 1948, using techniques that generally favored low elevation precipitation
measurements (instead of snow) and debates raged for close to two decades on which
technique was best. Most recently in 1992, NRCS hydrologist David Garen developed a
highly advanced statistical technique that has become the water supply forecasting industry
standard among both agencies, in Canada and elsewhere around the world.
In 1983, NRCS forecast responsibilities were collected from the states into the National
Water and Climate Center (NWCC) in Portland, Oregon. Today, NWCC hydrologists track
basin moisture conditions on a daily basis while the snowpack accumulates in the mountains
and melts off in the spring. Working with other NWS hydrologists throughout the Western
US, water supply outlooks are issued every month from January through June for rivers at
the top of the Artic Circle to the deserts of southern Arizona. These volumetric streamflow
forecasts are a key to the sustainability of water supplies across a range of sectors, from
reservoir management, irrigation, the environment, recreation and others.
Although many things have changed about the production of water supply forecasts, the
core principles remain the same. All hydrologists ask “How much snow is on the basin and
where? Will dry soils steal away some of the water? Will the rest of the season be wet or
dry? How certain am I about what will happen?” Over the years, the speed, ease and
reliability of answering these questions has improved with the use of science and
technology.
Faster and Faster
An eternity seemed to pass between measurement of the data in the mountains and the
final forecast numbers arriving in the hands of the water user. On wooden skis in the
1920’s, it would sometimes take two weeks for a group of surveyors to complete a circuit,
perhaps longer if they encountered inclement weather. Mechanized over-snow transport
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 4
revolutionized snow surveying in the 1950s with the advent of the Sno-Cat and personal
snow machines. Then, in the 1970s with the formation of the automated SNOw TELemetry
(SNOTEL) network, data could appear instantly on the computer screens of the forecasters.
In the late 1980s, centralization sped the forecast creation process, but a bureaucratic
bottleneck, unusual even for government work, seriously slowed the distribution process, a
trend sharply reversed by the Internet in recent years. Now, satellites ring the planet,
beaming back reams of high resolution data on everything ranging from snow covered area
to soil moisture, plant health and land use.
Although many forecasts were distributed by post or telephone as they are today, the
community was often kept informed during the 1930’s by extended radio address and
commentary. Tune in to the January 16th newsletter in this series for an example.
Telemetered data systems allow the water manager to track a quickly evolving rain on snow
event as it happens. To compliment increased data availability, the NWCC has developed a
prototype system this year that automatically creates a new water supply forecast every
day. During water year 2006, 50 basins were calibrated and daily forecasts delivered to
users through the Internet. This may be the world’s very first “instant basin forecast”
system developed by a public agency.
The Role of Humans
It has been said that the factory of the future will have two employees; a human and a dog.
The human is there only to feed the dog and the dog is there to bite the human in case he
or she tries to touch anything. While the GS (General Service, i.e. federal) employee of
today is probably not the German Shepherd of tomorrow, there has always been a running
theme of automation versus human intervention throughout all forecasting enterprises.
Today, airplanes can take off, fly and land by themselves using computers. Human pilots
remain on board to put the passengers at ease and to take hold of the controls in the event
of an emergency. Similarly, developing hydrologic forecasts is both an art and a science,
relying on the quantitative output of tools as the foundation, while using human expertise to
synthesize the information and sort out strange situations (e.g. furnace hot winds in
springtime).
The key, of course, lies in picking the right battles - allow the computers to do the tedium
and drudgery to free up the humans to focus on analysis and interpretation. The NRCS
especially has made great strides in producing much information with limited personnel.
Many people are surprised to learn that only four NWCC hydrologists produce analyses for
close to 800 locations in almost half a work-week, making forecasts that are tied to multimillion
dollar power and water management decisions. Forecasting progress has recently
been accelerated by a new interactive visualization environment developed last year.
But who knows what the future holds? Just as Big Blue defeated Kasparov in chess, weather
forecasters are increasingly finding it difficult to be more skillful than some of their objective
models. The day may come when developing forecasts is like tending a campfire; despite
the temptation to interfere, it may be best sometimes to leave it on its own.
Predictions for the future
Having been born in the 1970s, it is sometimes difficult for me to conceal my
disappointment with the lack of hover cars and space colonies in the 21st century. At the
same time, it is a challenge to pass up such an opportunity to add my name to the list of
those that have tried to cast light into the future of the program. Nonetheless I will try to
adhere to this sage advice “Predict a time, place, or magnitude, but never all three at once.”
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 5
Fundamental understanding of watershed and climate processes will improve. In particular,
the NRCS’s recent investment in soil moisture measuring technology will mature into
quantitative forecasts of runoff efficiency in as few as 10 years. In 20 years it should be
fairly obvious who is right or wrong in the climate change debate.
Computing power will greatly accelerate, and in 10 years we will have hand-held computers
with 10,000 GB hard drives that use 100 GHz processors to delete torrents of spam from
our email inboxes at lightning speed anywhere we go. Transfer times and storage of large
data sets will become a trivial matter. Hopefully everyone will adopt a universal language
and format for exchanging data. I predict this format will be called “E.S.P.E.R.A.N.T.O.” [Ed:
Google it, or do whatever you futurelings call melding with the Global Brain] and that only
NASA could be responsible for such a long and likely nested acronym.
Increased computing power should lead to more “distributed” forecasting systems, i.e.
everyone can create their own forecasts anytime from anywhere, even in their pajamas.
The Internet will be their database. This means that more university research groups will
create more “real-time” models and have much to contribute during the actual creation of
the official forecasts.
In 15 to 20 years, along with relying on the help of others, the NWCC will be running a
diversity of models and tools for guidance. Someday we will start thinking about ways to
automatically and objectively combine these tools, much like a human would. And if that
dream becomes a reality, my shaggy new office-mate will be paid in Milk Bones, but I’ll still
be paid in scraps!
Tom Pagano
Water Supply Forecaster
NWCC, NRCS-USDA
Portland, OR

 

[mtntopper]

Mike, this is a really long read. Can't you just put it together like a books on tape and send it to all of us.................

Good Find!!!!! I will try to read in installments each day for a couple.............

 

[mbsieg]

I would post a link but that will not work so I am forced to cut n paste.

 

[mbsieg]

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are mentioned in the Bible in chapter six
of the Book of Revelation, which predicts that they will ride during the Apocalypse.
The four horsemen are traditionally named War, Famine, Pestilence, and Death.
The Four Horsemen were also the senior backfield that led Notre Dame to the
national collegiate football championship in 1924; put together as sophomores by
Irish coach Knute Rockne; immortalized by sportswriter Grantland Rice, whose report
of the Oct. 19, 1924, Notre Dame-Army game began: “Outlined against a blue, gray
October sky the Four Horsemen rode again…”
The Four Horsemen of snow surveys and streamflow forecasting were: Horace P.
Boardman, James E. Church, George Dewey Clyde, and Walter W. McLaughlin. The
people associated with the Snow Survey Program (past and present) are the hardiest
of individuals who love their work and toil tirelessly. There have been many
“prominent” people throughout the years that have furthered the technology of snow
data collection and water supply forecasting. It would take pages to acknowledge all
of them and their accomplishments. There have been/are many great ones!
However, the Snow Survey Program would not be what it is today without the
singular contributions of these four dedicated, enthusiastic and ambitious men. To be
sure, there would probably be a “Snow Survey Program”, since the qualities of snow
are so important to our Western U.S. culture and economy…but it wouldn’t be what it
is today without the “Four Horsemen”…Boardman, Church, Clyde, and McLaughlin.
The First Honorary Memberships to the Western Snow Conference1
1 This article was taken from the Western Snow Conference Honor Awards Ceremony
held in Reno, Nevada on April 22, 1959.
FOREWARD
Service to one’s fellowmen is an enduring source of satisfaction. This satisfaction
compensates for long hours of work, patient waiting and sometimes tedious effort. It
is well earned and it explains, in part at least, the dedication to service characteristic
of so many of our members.
The Constitution and By-Laws of the Western Snow Conference provides for election
to Honorary Membership of any member or person who shall have significantly
contributed in outstanding manner to Western Snow Conference or to the science of
snow hydrology and streamflow forecasting.
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov April 17, 2006
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 2
The Conference, in more than a quarter-century of activity, has presented four
special awards of plaques and medals. However, not until 1959, the Golden
Anniversary of Western Snow Surveying, has the Conference granted the coveted
award of Honorary Membership.
By unanimous ballot, the Conference has now elected four candidates upon whom
this signal honor is being seated. These candidates are noted nationally and
internationally, each in his own field, and all in snow surveying, for their collective
and individual service to their fellowmen, to the Western Snow Conference, and to
the water users of Western States.
The Western Snow Conference pays tribute to these men:
PROFESSOR HORACE P. BOARDMAN
DR. JAMES E. CHURCH
GOVERNOR GEORGE DEWEY CLYDE
MR. WALTER W. McLAUGHLIN
Herein are related the events and contributions which make of this a memorable
privilege for Western Snow Conference to welcome these four patrons to Honorary
Membership.
HORACE PRENTISS BOARDMAN
Horace Prentiss Boardman, engineer and educator, was born at
Menasha, Wisconsin, January 21, 1869. Married Elsa Leonard in
Chicago July 22, 1896 (deceased September 1948). There were four
children: Russel L., Edgar, Dorothy and Elizabeth.
He was educated in the Monroe high school in Green County,
Wisconsin and the Morgan Park Military Academy near Chicago. B.S.
in Civil Engineering, University of Wisconsin 1894. Degree of Civil
Engineer, University of Wisconsin 1911. Received Honorary Degree
of Doctor of Science, University of Nevada 1950.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
After graduation, Mr. Boardman worked in engineering department of
Chicago Sanitary District; Chicago Pure Water and Drainage
Commission. He was acting bridge engineer with the Chicago and
Alton Railroad at which time he designed the sub-structure of the
reconstructed Glasgow bridge over the Missouri River. He continued
to design and build bridges with various companies, including an
assignment as assistant bridge engineer with the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St. Paul Railroad until August 1907, when he accepted the call to
the University of Nevada as professor of civil engineering, a chair he
held continuously for 32 years until his retirement in 1939. He was
acting Dean of the College of Engineering from 1917 to 1921. He
was director of University of Nevada Engineering Experiment Station
for a number of years. One interruption to his consecutive work at
Reno came during World War I when from March to August, 1918,
he was on a leave of absence employed on the engineering force of
the U. S. Explosive Plant at Nitro, West Virginia.
Dr. Boardman was for several years Chairman of the Forecast
Committee of the Nevada Cooperative Snow Surveys. This might
have been described as a hobby, though it proved of immense
practical value. Snow surveys carried out for the purpose of
estimating and predicting the seasonal sources of water for industrial
uses have had repeated demonstration of their value many times in
recent years, and especially so following the disastrous droughts of
the 30's.
As Professor of Civil Engineering at University of Nevada, Professor
Boardman inevitably became deeply interested in, and then actively
associated with the studies of snow, initiated there by Dr. J. E.
Church. These two scientists joined their enthusiasms, energies, and
experience, all tempered and supported with engineering facts and
approaches, and worked as a team through all of the succeeding
years.
Professor Boardman since 1894 has been a member of the Western
Society of Engineers at Chicago, and since 1918 has been a member
of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He is also a member of
the American Society for Testing Materials, the Society for the
Promotion of Engineering Education, Western Snow Conference and
American Geophysical Union.
He is an independent in politics, is a member of the Delta Upsilon,
the Reno Rotary Club and Chamber of Commerce.
Technical articles from the pen of Professor Boardman have
appeared in many engineering publications:
Stadia Surveys for Railroad Location, Engineering News – 1901
Reconstruction Design of Substructure of Glasgow Bridge over
Missouri River for Chicago & Alton Railroad, Journal of the Western
Society of Engineers, 1901
Retaining Wall and Earth Pressures, Engineering News Record, 1905
Wind Pressures on Inclined Roofs (Earned C. E. Degree with this
paper), Western Society of Engineers, 1911
Buttress Type Dam with Curved Upstream Pace, Civil Engineer, 1951
Snow Surveys for Forecasting Stream Flow in Western Nevada
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 184, September 1949
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 4
Some Interesting Facts About Lake Tahoe, (Now in the process of
being published) 1959
Numerous articles and discussions in "American Geophysical Union"
and other publications from 1930 to 1950.
JAMES EDWARD CHURCH
James Edward Church, Educator, was born in Holly, Michigan, February
15, 1869. Married Florence Humphrey July 2, 1894, (deceased February
1922). There are two sons: Willis Humphrey and Donald Eisenbrey.
A.B. Degree at University of Michigan in 1892. Ph.D. at University of
Munich in 1901; his LL.D. at University of Nevada in 1937. He studied
archeology in Italy and Greece in 1901.
Dr. Church was a teacher and principal in public schools in Michigan in
1885-1888; instructor of Latin and German, University of Nevada in
1892-94, Assistant Professor Latin 1894-95, Associate Professor in 1895-
96 and Professor in 1896 to 1939.
Other Activities and Contributions: He was Secretary, Rhodes
Scholarship Committee for Nevada, 1904, President, 1933, 1935-; Cofounder
of the Nevada Art Gallery, Incorporate President 1943-; Fellow,
American Academy of Arts and Science; Member, American
Meteorological Society (Councilor 1933-35); Member of Aeroartic;
Member, American Geophysical Union (Chairman Committee on Snow
1931-47, Vice-President Section Hydrology 1936-39, President 1942-47);
Member, International Association Science Hydrology (President
Committee on Snow 1933-39, Snow and Glaciers 1939-48); Honorary Life
Member, International Commission on Snow and Ice; Member, American
Philosophical Association.
He was founder of the Mt. Rose Meteorological Observatory in 1905;
advisor to cooperative snow surveys for the State of Nevada;
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 5
Meteorologist of Michigan-Greenland Expeditions, 1926-27, and 28;
Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station, 1906-19 and 1931-48, and
snow specialist of U. S. Weather Bureau 1942-48; now retired and
engaged in research and writing.
He was guest at the 220th Anniversary Soviet Academy of Science
1945; he organized snow surveys in the Himalaya for Indian
Government in 1946-47, and in the Andes for Argentina in 1947-48.
Honors Received: Phi Beta Kappa (Michigan); Honorary Sigma XI
(Michigan); LLD (Nevada); Guest 2nd Pan-American Scientific
Congress (Washington, D. C.); Unlimited Horizons: Radio tribute;
Guest at Ghandi's Evening Service (New Delhi); Guest at CCXX
Anniversary of Soviet Academy of Science in Moscow; Life
Membership in Sierra Club, Explorers Club, American Geophysical
Union, British Glaciological Society; Citations by Central Snow
Conference (East Lansing), Western Snow Conference (Reno), U.S.A.
Quartermaster General Military Planning Division, Reno Junior
Chamber of Commerce (Citizen of the Month); Daughters of the
American Revolution (Award of Merit); Naming of the Fine Arts
Building (University of Nevada), Reno,
Selected Writings: The Influence of Mountains and Forests on the
Conservation of Snow. Snow-Surveying: Its Problems and Their
Present Phases, Second Pan-American Scientific Congress. Snow:
Snow Surveying (Chapter in Physics of the Earth: Hydrology
National Research Council, American Geophysical Union). Snow
Survey (American Geographical Society). Snow-Surveying and the
Forecasting of Stream Flow ("With Reference to Mt. Rose") (Sec.
Pan-American Scientific Congress 1915). Greenland, the Top of the
World, 1928. Climate and Evaporation in Alpine and Artic Zones 1928.
Law and Society.
The Human Side of Snow (Scientific Monthly)
1. The Saga of Mt. Rose Observatory
2. Snow: Sport and Transport
3. Snow Perils and Avalanches
4. Perennial Snow and Glaciers
The Soul of Soviet Russia 1936; Journal of a Trip Through Tierra Del
Fuego 1940; Science and Adventure 1949; The Physics of Snow-Melt
1952; Forecasting the Summer Runoff of the Rhine, 1952-58; Snow
and Life, 1955; Roman Burial Inscriptions; Pilgrimage to Mt.
Paranassus,
Travels: Voyage to British Isles, Germany, Greece for Classics,
1899-1901. two voyages to Greenland, latter via Europe, 1926-28; to
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics at Edinburgh and
Circle Trip to Snow-Hydrologists in Northern Europe with long
convalescence from double pneumonia in Moscow, 1939; world trip
eastward through Northern Hemisphere to CCXX Anniversary of
Soviet Academy of Science, 19-15; world trip westward in Southern
Hemisphere to India. Argentina, Chile, 1948-49; voyage eastward to
Norway (Oslo) and Switzerland to International Union, 1949.
__________
Dr. Church, though a professor of classics, was an enthusiastic
mountaineer and half a century ago became interested in the
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 6
relation of forests and mountains to the conservation of snow. He is
referred to by many as "The Father of Snow Surveys."
GEORGE DEWEY CLYDE
George Dewey Clyde, engineer, educator and Governor of Utah, was
born at Springville, Utah, July 21, 1898. Married Ora Packard. There
are five children: Ned P., Ruth, Richard Bruce, Jerald Reed and Mary
Ann.
B.S. Degree in Agricultural Engineering, Utah State University, 1921;
M.S. Degree in Civil Engineering, University of California, 1923;
Honorary LLD Degree, Westminster College, Salt Lake City, Utah;
Honorary DSc Degree, Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
George Clyde spent his early life on an irrigation farm in central Utah
where he gained his first insight into the soil and water engineering
field that has occupied nearly all of his professional life.
Following his graduate work, he entered the education field and rose
to become Dean of Engineering at Utah State University. He then
entered Federal Service as Chief of Division of Irrigation, USDA,
where he had charge of irrigation and drainage research work
throughout the West. He was made Chief Engineer for the Soil
Conservation Service. He left federal work and returned to service in
his native state, heading up its water and power development, and
after three years, became the Governor of Utah.
Governor Clyde has made many contributions in the field of soil and
water engineering. Has done original work in snow surveys and
water supply forecasting, in irrigation and drainage, in watershed
protection and development and in the multiple purpose use of the
limited water resources of the West.
Academic recognition: Johansen Scholarship (Utah State Agricultural
College); Phi Kappa Phi (Utah State Agricultural College);
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 7
Valedictorian (Utah State Agricultural College), 1921; Member,
Sigma XI (University of California); Willard D. Thompson Scholarship
(University of California) 2 years; Member, Sigma Tau (Engineering
Fraternity); Honorary LLD Degree—Westminster College, Salt Lake
City, Utah; Honorary DSc Degree—Utah State University, Logan,
Utah.
Professional record: Engineering teaching - Utah State Agricultural
College, 22 years; Irrigation Extension Specialist - Utah State
Agricultural College; Engineering Research (water supply, irrigation,
and drainage), Utah State Agricultural College - 22 years; Consulting
Engineer (water supply, litigation, investigations, design, construction);
Administration (education, research, investigations and construction) -
30 years.
Special professional assignments: Water Commissioner, Logan
River, 20 years; design and construction of irrigation systems, water
works and sewer systems; snow surveys and streamflow forecasts (11
western states); water allotments for irrigation districts; special
investigation on Kootenai River in Idaho; special hydraulic investigations
- Bear River Bay Refuge; special investigations - smelter fumes -
Garfield Smelter, Utah; water supply and return flow studies; floodcontrol
studies on Southern Utah.
Public service assignments: State Water Conservation - appointed by
Governor Blood to act during the severe drought of 1934; member,
National 18-Man Land Grant College Association Committee on Post
War Agricultural Policy, 1942-44; Vice-President and Director, Utah
Water Users Association; member, Advisory Board, Utah State
Department of Industrial Development, Water Resources Development,
Water Resources Division; member, National Reclamation Association;
Vice-President, Colorado River-Great Basin Development Association;
member, N.R.A. Committee to study President's water policy
commission report, 1951; member, 17-Man Water Policy Committee,
N.R.A., 1952; member, U. S. Delegation to Fourth Pan-American
Conference on Agriculture, Montivedio, Uruguay, 1950; member, 18-
Man Advisory Committee on Soil and Water Conservation, USDA -
1955; Advisor on Water Resources and Utilization to two Secretaries of
Agriculture; member and Vice-Chairman, Upper Colorado River
Commission.
Administrative assignments: Governor, State of Utah - 1957 to date;
Director, Utah Water and Power Board and Commissioner of Interstate
Streams for Utah; member Upper Colorado River Commission, Bear River
Commission, Columbia River Commission and Pacific Southwest Inter-
Agency Committee - 1953 to date; Chief Engineer, Soil Conservation
Service, USDA - 1953; Chief, Division of Irrigation Engineering and Water
Conservation Research, SCS, USDA - 17 western states 1945-1953;
Dean, School of Engineering & Technology, Utah State Agricultural
College, 1935-1945; Director, Utah State Engineering Experiment
Station, 1939-45; Administrator of the following activities, all at USAC:
National Defense Training Program, 1940-42; War Production Training
Program, 1942-45; Civilian Pilot Training Program, 1939-42; Naval Radio
Training Program, 1942-44; Army Specialized Training-Program, 1943-
44; Manager, USAC Hydro-electric Plant, 1936-45.
Governor Clyde is a member of the following professional societies:
American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Agricultural
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 8
Engineers, Soil Conservation Society of America and Western Snow
Conference, of which he was General Chairman in 1937-38.
Publications: Over 50 publications on many subjects in the field of
water supply, its development and utilization, and irrigation
institutions have been written by Dr. Clyde.
WALTER W. McLAUGHLIN
Walter McLaughlin was born at Nederland, Colorado on January 6,
1876. Married Phoebe Eliason. There is one daughter, Mrs. Anna M.
Demsey, two grandchildren and three great-grandchildren.
B.S. in civil engineering, Utah State Agricultural College, 1896. M.S.
degree in soil physics and irrigation, University of Californa, 1924.
After graduation, Mr. McLaughlin spent three years as assayer and
chemist for the Swansae Mining Co. at Silver City, Utah. In 1901 he
returned to Utah Agricultural Experiment Station as assistant
chemist and also taught irrigation engineering and some
mathematics at the college. In 1902 he took the first examination
offered by U. S. Reclamation Service of the Department of Interior
and was appointed irrigation aide in 1903. In 1904 he was
transferred to the U. S. Department of Agriculture. In 1905 Mr.
McLaughlin was loaned to a cooperative undertaking in eastern
Montana involving the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Montana
Agricultural Experiment Station and the Northern Pacific Railroad to
establish five agricultural experiment stations for so-called "dry farm
methods". In 1906 he returned to Utah Agricultural College for
cooperative work between the USDA and the College.
In 1914 Mr. McLaughlin resigned from the college to conduct
research studies on the movement of soil moisture in different types
of soils with the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Riverside,
California. In 1917 he was transferred to Berkeley, California and
continued in charge of research work until 1925 when he was made
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 9
Chief of the Division of Irrigation in the Department. In general, the
research and investigations covered the origin of water, transit of
water by natural and artificial means to its best use for agriculture
and the disposal of surplus water by drainage or otherwise; and the
economic feasibility of the project and its financing. At various times,
Mr. McLaughlin was given duties in addition to his regular work. One
such in 1927 was to cooperate with the U. S. Biological Survey in the
locating and building of migratory water-fowl refuges in the western
states, including preparation of plans and specifications for the
engineering works, such as dams, dykes, and other water control
structures and devices, and supervision of construction after
contracts to build were let. The refuge at the mouth of Bear River
some 15 miles west of Brigham City, Utah and developments on the
Souris River in the vicinity of Minot, North Dakota are examples. This
special duty extended over six or seven years. In 1946 Mr.
McLaughlin retired from Government Service.
In 1946 to 1953 he was consultant to the Chief of the Soil
Conservation Service and spent about half of his time in this
capacity.
Mr. McLaughlin is a member of the Masonic Order, American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, Geophysical Union, National Reclamation
Association, Utah Association of Engineers; and is registered civil
engineer in California.
He has traveled in all but seven of the states of the Union. His
European trips have taken him to England, Scotland, Germany, The
Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden.
Mr. McLaughlin was awarded honorary life membership of the
Western State Engineers Association, the Association of Agricultural
Engineers and the American Geophysical Union as well as some
other state organizations. He received the John Deere Medal Award
in 1940 for service in agriculture; an honorary award from the U. S.
Department of Agriculture in 1949; a plaque award from the
Western Snow Conference in 1952.
Never a popular or prolific writer, the total of his reports, bulletins,
and technical papers would yet be impressive. In one obviously
abridged list of two dozen major items are two papers presented to
the International Soil Congress; others to the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, the American Geophysical Union, the Institute of
Irrigation Agriculture, and others. Most of his bulletins and kindred
publications have been issued by the Utah State Agricultural College
and by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. He is the author of
numerous technical articles in English journals as well as of similar
articles here. We list five of his most important publications:
USDA Bulletin 835, "Capillary Movement of Soil Moisture";
"Utilization of Soil and Water Resources of Cache Valley, Utah";
Research Bulletins of the Utah Agricultural College with which he was
connected—Bulletins 80 and 86 and the series 105 to 115, all
dealing with the use of soil moisture by crop plants; an article in the
Journal of the Bureau of Public Roads in May 1921 entitled "Capillary
Moisture and Its Effect on Highway Subgrades."
Chief accomplishments for and in snow surveys or other fields of
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page
10
public service:
Mr. McLaughlin took leadership in organizing the snow survey and
irrigation water supply forecasting in the arid states in 1935.
Secured the first appropriation by the Federal Government for snow
surveying and irrigation water supply forecasting. Organized state
irrigation associations. Developed methods of economic feasibility of
irrigation and drainage projects in several of the Western States.
One of his Utah State colleagues said of him: "In his capacity of
leadership he has inspired and directed research work by many men
... on almost every phase of irrigation and drainage and made many
significant contributions . . . consumptive use of water in irrigation;
seepage losses from canals; flow of water in soils; design and
construction of irrigation and drainage wells; use of water by crops;
and so on and on." "His influence on irrigated agriculture has been
out of all proportion to the notice he has received in the public
press," said another of his associates.
∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗
Tom Perkins
NRCS Senior Hydrologist
Portland, Oregon

 

[mbsieg]

Water forecasts Key for Salmon Tract Irrigators
Predicting how much water is going to be available for stockholders in the Salmon
River Canal Company has always been a challenge. When the Salmon Dam was
completed in 1911 near Rogerson, Idaho, promoters expected the Salmon tract
would rival the nearby Twin Falls Canal Company. In fact, several investors lost quite
a bit of the money they made developing the 202,000-acre Twin Falls Canal Co. tract
trying to pull off a second large project. It didn’t take long to learn the Salmon Falls
watershed was stingy and the irrigation project was quickly scaled back to about
25,000 acres. Old timers can count how many times the reservoir has filled in its 93-
year history. That’s why predicting runoff using data collected from snow survey
sites has been so important for over half a century.
Water shortages and noxious weeds headed the list of problems that led farmers on
the Salmon Tract to form a soil conservation district in 1950. At that time, people on
the tract hauled domestic water about six months out of each year. Water shortages
left many fertile fields uncultivated and rangeland undeveloped.
Measuring and forecasting water supplies has been a primary responsibility of the
District since it began gathering snow data in 1954. Until the sites were automated
in the 1990s, district supervisors manually collected data from 13 snow courses.
Each April the Twin Falls Soil and Water Conservation District hosts a water forecast
meeting to share information about the snowpack and streamflow projections to
farmers on the Salmon Tract. That information is used to set the annual irrigation
allocation. A full share is 1.167 acre-feet, but in practice irrigators consider 0.75
acre-feet a full share. Allocations have been as low as 0.1 acre-feet per share in
1961. An acre-foot will cover an acre to the depth of 12 inches.
Lyle Fuller farms on the Salmon Tract and is a past member of the Twin Falls SWCD.
He remembers going on his first trip to check snow courses over Christmas break
when he was a freshman in high school. Back then it took at least three days (if
everything went well) to check the snow courses that dotted the Salmon Falls
watershed. The canal company takes its name from the waterway’s Nevada
moniker… Salmon River. Once the stream crosses the Idaho border, it is known as
Salmon Falls Creek. Surveyors didn’t go alone. At that time, the Soil Conservation
Service (known today as the Natural Resources Conservation Service) owned the
equipment and provided one technician to help collect data. All the rest of the labor
was provided on a voluntary basis by farmers, many of them members of the Twin
Falls SWCD. “A lot of folks only went once,” Fuller said.
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov April 24, 2006
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 2
Fuller remembers that the weather was good the first day out. He and his father
went with this uncle and two cousins in a surplus military jeep that had been
converted to a snow machine by adding tracks. The cab was too small to fit the
entire crew so someone had to ski along behind. They stopped at the Ranger Station
in Jarbidge, Nevada to build a fire before heading the 9 miles up to Bear Creek and
then to Fox Creek. If all went well, the snow machine would take them the whole
way. If not, someone would stay with the snow machine and either dig it out or
repair it while the others skied up to the snow course.
With today’s technology, getting the current snow depth information is as simple as
clicking a computer mouse. But back then, they had to take snow depth
measurements every 100 feet across the half-mile wide snow course at Bear Creek.
As more information was collected over the years, the Bear Creek snow course was
shortened to five sampling sites, located about 50-feet apart.
The crew spent the night at Jarbidge Ranger Station, then headed out in miserable
weather to build a fire at the Pole Creek Ranger Station before checking the snow
courses at Pole Creek, Hummingbird Spring and Goat Creek. Fuller remembers skiing
behind the snow machine with his father that day when his father suddenly waved
down his uncle who was driving the snow machine to ask: “All day long the wind has
been blowing snow into this cheek and now it’s blowing into the other. Has the wind
changed direction or did you turn around?”
On the third day, the crew checked sites at Cedar Creek, Deadline Ridge, Magic
Mountain and the Shoshone Basin. It was a long three days and the surveyors still
had 8 more snow courses to check. “You had to pack enough food and supplies for at
least three days,” Fuller said. “Very few times you made it without something
breaking down.” Most of the sites were set up in the fall of 1954, although U.S.
Forest Service rangers had been collecting snowpack data at Bear Creek since 1931.
Sno Ball… the converted army surplus snow survey jeep.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
After graduating from high school and beginning to farm, Fuller was one of the
regular snow surveyors for 30 years between the mid-1960s and mid-1990s. Over
the years, helicopters gradually replaced the old snow machines. In time, modern
snow machines replaced the helicopters. Beginning in the early 1990s, many of the
old snow courses were upgraded with telemetry systems that allow the data to be
automatically sent to a centralized site on a hourly or daily basis. Instead of checking
the sties manually once a month, the NRCS now ground truths the sites at least once
a year. “The means of collecting the data has changed, but the need for the
information hasn’t,” Fuller said. “Without accurate snowpack data and streamflow
forecasts, irrigators are left to guess about their water supply based on reservoir
levels and snowpack observations. And with fuel and other input costs rising rapidly,
that’s not a risk farmers can afford to take these days,” he added.
At the 51st annual water forecast meeting on April 6, 2006, irrigators on the Salmon
Tract learned they could expect a full allotment of 1.1 acre-feet no matter which of
the five streamflow projections were used. That was good news after 6 years of
drought.
Cindy Snyder
Twin Falls Soil and Water Conservation District

 

[mbsieg]

The First Western Water Supply Forecast at Lake Tahoe:
Ending the Tahoe Water War.
The mountainous West and snow:
The Western US is a fairly arid region, with mountain ranges spanning from Mexico
to Canada, and from the Pacific Ocean to the Colorado Rockies, ending where the
Great Plains begin. In addition, the precipitation in the area comes in a seasonal
fashion, with wet cool winters following hot dry summers. These mountain ranges
scrape the underbelly of the clouds capturing the rain and snow from the storms off
the Pacific as they begin their eastward movement across the continent. The higher
the mountains, the more snow and rain are captured, thereby creating a hierarchical
precipitation regime, with dry valleys and wet cold snow-filled mountains. When the
West was settled, the people invariably used the flat river valleys between the
mountains to farm and live, and looked to the mountains to provide the summer
water from snowmelt. Reservoirs were built to control the timing of the streamflow
and regulate the streamflow to continue at a higher level throughout the dry summer
months for municipal and agricultural use. Water became the lifeblood of the West,
where in Mark Twain’s immortal words “…whiskey is for drinking and water is for
fighting over.”
Western Snow Surveys Begin:
Among those pondering the snow in the mountains that supply the lifeblood of the
West was Dr James E. Church, a professor of Literature at the University of Nevada,
Reno. Dr. Church noted that the snow in the Sierra Nevada Mountains around Lake
Tahoe was a natural reservoir not unlike man made ones that stored water until
needed in the spring and summer. His curiosity about snow lead him to begin his
work on snow and water in the Sierra Nevada, that feed the Reno, Nevada area.
In 1906, Dr. Church’s snow survey work began with a systematic measurement of
snow on Mount Rose and then expanded to the surrounding areas. This early
extensive snow survey network was established by 1909-1910. This early system of
sampling snow was developed along defined course locations of individual samples
spaced at regular intervals. These early snow courses were located in or close to
areas that were tributaries of Lake Tahoe or the Truckee River on the California –
Nevada border. Dr. Church’s original idea was to use the snow survey
measurements to develop some relationship of high altitude forests to the
conservation of snow. Early in the development of this work he was approached by
H. H. Barter, an engineer in the employ of the Stone and Webster Engineering
Corporation of Boston, who asked if the results of these snow surveys could be used
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov May 1, 2006
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 2
to predict the rise of water in Lake Tahoe. Dr. Church was unable to answer Mr.
Barter, but this question stuck with him. This spurred him on to find a way to
measure the water content in the snow, and led to the development of the Mount
Rose Sampler. Early snow surveys occurred on April 1 of each year and a record
was kept of each survey. The relationship of snow surveys to streamflow has been
the main purpose of such surveys since this time.
The History of and facts about Lake Tahoe:
Lake Tahoe was discovered by John C. Freemont in 1844, known only to the regional
Native Americans before that. Lake Tahoe is 192.7 mi2 with a contributing area of
land of 506 mi2. Lake Tahoe Dam operates the lake’s upper 6.1 feet and regulates
the amount of water released from the lake into the Truckee River at Tahoe City. The
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
present day 18 foot high dam was built in 1913 by the Bureau of Reclamation and
the Truckee River General Electric Company, predecessor of Sierra Pacific Power
Company. The usable storage capacity of Lake Tahoe is 744,600 Acre-feet, though
the lake stores an additional 122 million acre-feet below the lake rim. The average
depth of the lake is 1000 feet deep and is the second deepest lake in the U.S. The
lake has been noted for its beauty and clarity by such notable people as Mark Twain
and John C. Freemont. Significant changes to the lake began in the 1860s when the
area was extensively logged for timber for the booming mining industry of the
Comstock Lode in Virginia City, NV. The very first dam was reported to have been
constructed in 1871 or 1874. The early dams were used to regulate the water level
for streamflow control to transport the logs downstream.
Subsequently, the United States government initiated a series of complex water
rights litigation and negotiation to use and operate the dam at Lake Tahoe in 1915 to
use the water for the Newlands Project for agricultural water supply. Today, the lake
is operated by the Truckee-Carson Irrigation District for the Bureau of Reclamation
under contract.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 4
Mark Twain’s remarks from his book “Roughing It”, from his camping for a time
along the shores of Lake Tahoe:
So singular clear was the water, that where it was only
twenty or thirty feet deep the bottom was so perfectly
distinct that the boat seemed floating in the air! Yes,
where it was even eighty feet deep. Every little pebble
was distinct, every speckled trout, every hand’s-breath
of sand. Often, as we lay on our faces, a granite
boulder, as large as a village church would start out of
the bottom apparently, and seem climbing up rapidly to
the surface, till presently it threatened to touch our
faces, and we could not resist the impulse to seize an
oar and avert the danger, But the boat would float on,
and the boulder descend again, and then we could see
that when we had been exactly above it, it must have
still have been twenty or thirty feet below the surface.
Down through the transparency of these great depths,
the water was not merely transparent, but dazzlingly,
brilliantly so. All objects seen through had bright strong
vividness, not only of outline, but of every minute detail,
which they would not have had when seen simply
through the same depth of atmosphere. So empty and
airy did all spaces seem below us, and so strong was the
sense of floating high aloft in mid-nothingness, that we
called these boat excursions “balloon Voyages”.
The “Tahoe Water War”:
There is a monument to the Water Wars in Tahoe City, CA, by the Lake Tahoe Dam
that reads:
Lake Tahoe Outlet Gates
Conflicting control of these gates, first built in 1870,
resulted in the “Tahoe Water War” between Lakeshore
owners and downstream Truckee River Water users,
which lasted two decades. The dispute was settled in
1910-11 when techniques for determining water content
in snow were developed by Dr. James E. Church, Jr. and
made possible accurate prediction and control of the
seasonal rise in Lake and River levels”
Early skirmishes involved a plan developed in 1860 to divert Lake Tahoe water to
San Francisco, selling some water to California’s booming mining camps along the
way. The people in Nevada were very against this scheme that would take some of
the water from the Tahoe – Truckee system that they were planning to use. While
the plan died in 1900, the dam at the Lake outlet had been built, ending up in the
hands of the Truckee River General Electric Company. The controversy over water
did continue with the passage of the Reclamation Act in 1902, which began the rapid
construction of the first Bureau of Reclamation project, The Newlands Project, east of
Reno, Nevada where the Bureau of Reclamation was going to “make the Desert
bloom”, proving that agriculture was viable in the western deserts when enough
water is supplied. The Bureau of Reclamation made an initial water rights claim in
1903 for the project. The property owners around the lake became concerned about
the effect of the dam operation on lake levels. The Bureau also proposed a tunnel
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 5
from the lake for additional water for the Newlands Project, but this was overcome
by the lake property owners and the state of California. The controversy flared up
again in 1912, when the Power Company and Bureau of Reclamation began dredging
the lake outlet and cutting down the lake rim to release more water. A court order
stopped this as well. Unfortunately, the Newlands Project had been designed in a
wetter than average climate period, and when the dry years came in the 1920s and
1930s, suffering farmers, the Bureau of Reclamation, Lake shore owners, and both
states were involved in a series of negotiations, litigations and public controversy.
Several years of pumping water out of Lake Tahoe did occur in 1924, 1929, 1930
and 1934. A series of legislative Acts and Agreements now govern the Lake Tahoe
water rights. Within these agreements is the language that the NRCS Seasonal
Water Supply Forecast will be the basis of water management in the basin.
Water Supply Forecasts calm the war:
So, once the snow sampling measurement instruments and snow courses were
developed, the question that H. H. Barter had asked Dr. Church could be addressed.
The early Water Supply Forecasting at Lake Tahoe began in 1909-1910. The main
focus of the water supply forecast was to better manage the water in the top 6.1 feet
of Lake Tahoe from 6223 (natural rim) to elevation 6229.1 under the Truckee River
Agreement. Under the agreement, the forecast helped in the decision on how the
water was to be divided among competing needs. If the water supply forecast
indicates that the lake will go above the 6229.1 level, then water is released from
the lake. The Lake Tahoe forecast has always been for the feet of rise in the lake
from April 1 to the highest level with the dam gates closed. This is a forecast of the
combination of the inflow from tributaries into the lake, added in the direct
precipitation, less the evaporation from the lake, and including the seepage at the
outflow gates, which is reflected in the change in lake rise measurements.
Dr. Church and Horace Boardman have emphasized, even back in the early years,
that the snow survey is not a complete picture of the snowpack in the watershed,
and does not measure the basin total water stored as snow. Streamflow records and
lake levels had been kept since the 1870s, so it was easy for Dr. Church to
determine an average year streamflow and lake rise. Dr. Church started developing
the first forecast using a percent of normal relationship for the snow year 1909-
1910. He assumed that the precipitation was the same percent of normal as the
snow survey water content. He was able to go back as far as the 1870 or 1880
precipitation records to determine what the average precipitation was in the Lake
Tahoe area. The snowpack water content for that year was then determined as a
percent of average from the few years of records. He used the precipitation percent
of average to determine the snow percent of average. Dr. Church then compared
the snow percent of average to the years of record of lake level rise since the 1870-
1880s and determined that the snow and lake level should have similar percent of
averages. The forecast was then determined that the 1909-1910 rise was related to
the April 1, 1910 snow survey and then the forecast rise in feet was determined.
The first normal used for the rise of Lake Tahoe from April 1 to the maximum high
level, gates closed, was 1.66 feet. This value was used until 1927. In the early
1920s, the forecasting was put into a graphical form where the percent of normal
snow would relate to the percent of average Lake Tahoe rise along a straight line
relationship. The average snowpack water content at that time was 35 inches. This
represented a weighted average of the snow courses in the Tahoe Basin.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 6
The continuing saga:
Decades of fighting over available water has been settled today under very specific
water rights and management agreement. Many interested groups remain vigilant
over the basin water needs. The last agreement was finally hammered out in the
late 1990s, where water is managed with the utmost concern to the tiniest amount
measurable. The Water Supply Forecasts began by Dr. Church continue today under
the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, as a coordinated federal forecast
with the National Weather Service. These forecasts are now supplied monthly
January through June and play a key role in determining the expected Lake Tahoe
rise and Truckee River streamflow for the spring and summer months. This valuable
information is input into reservoir management and system models that determine
the daily reservoir releases to mange the expected Lake Tahoe rise and Truckee
River streamflow volume. While the war may be over, the management of the
scarce and precious water of Lake Tahoe will continue, and snow will continue to
supply the water needs of the Tahoe-Truckee system. So, though whiskey may have
been long preempted by other drinks in the West, water is still worth fighting over.
- Jolyne Lea
The Tahoe – Truckee Forecast Hydrologist.

 

[mbsieg]

Operation Snow-Cat Cascade
I nearly tossed out the dog-eared manila folder as I was cleaning out the dusty old
cardboard box. In a new job, at a new location, I was trying to get settled in. Most of
the file labels seemed irrelevant, some nearly unreadable, so I was rapidly making
space in my new cubicle. As I reached over to put the folder into the “toss” pile, I
noticed that it contained an old carbon copy of a document, and that there were some
black and white photographs attached to the last few pages. Being a rather curious
sort, I grabbed the file for a quick look. I could barely make out the words, “Operation
Snow-Cat Cascade” in the title. The pictures included a pair of old ski-equipped Tucker
snow-cats in the snow. Because I had enjoyed driving the Tuckers while snow
surveying in Montana, I leaned back in my chair and began to read.
The document was dated October 15, 1948, and was written by R. A. “Arch” Work,
Research Project Supervisor, Division of Irrigation, Soil Conservation Service, Medford,
Oregon.
Work began, “This is a report of a 22-day winter snow survey trip of 1948, along the
spine of Oregon Cascade Mountains. This report details experiences of the 7 man crew
on the 573 mile trip with two Snow-Cat machines.”
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov May 8, 2006
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 2
During that era, the twenty-three high elevation Oregon Cascade snow courses were
surveyed by eleven, two-man crews traveling by foot, under the overall supervision of
W. T. “Jack” Frost. The thought was that it might be possible for a single team of men
to do the same job. Using modern machines capable of traveling long distances over
deep snow, they would traverse the entire length of the Oregon Cascades and sample
all of the snow courses in a more efficient and timely manner. “Operation Snow-Cat
Cascade” was an attempt to test the feasibility of that concept.
Although the idea was proposed in May of 1945, it wasn’t until April of 1947 that Mr.
Work got the ball rolling. He enlisted the help of numerous people along the way to
accomplish tasks such as locating supplies and equipment, pre-positioning food and
fuel caches, monitoring radio frequencies, and helping to break trail at various
locations along the route. Those that made the journey were carefully selected by Mr.
Work, and included him, as well as the following men:
R. B. Branstead, Head, Visual Education Section, SCS, Portland, Oregon
A. H. Brown, Staff Writer, National Geographic Society, Washington, DC
J. E. Fletcher, Staff Photographer, National Geographic Society, Washington, DC
Dr. Harvey A. Woods, MD, Ashland, Oregon
G. F. Sturdevant, Snow Surveyor, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station,
Medford, Oregon
Jasper Tucker, Engineer, Tucker Snow-Cat Company, Medford, Oregon
The government provided skis or snowshoes, Polaroid ski goggles, sleeping bags, and
mess kits. Each member was responsible for obtaining his own personal equipment.
Clothing was mainly wool, using the same layering principle used today. Nightshirts
were optional as were whiskey or brandy.
The group departed Ashland by truck at 7:30 am on Friday, March 19, 1948 after
interviews by radio station KYJC, Medford. The journey actually began at Greensprings
Summit, about eight miles north of the California border. The route of travel took the
group north to Fish Lake, on to the lip of Crater Lake, past Diamond Lake, through
Windigo Pass, and up through Dutchman Flat to Sisters. From there they crossed
Santiam Pass, to Detroit, past Olallie Lake, to the end of the trail at Cooper Spur on
the north side of Mount Hood. Total distance traveled was 573 miles. The route
crossed the Cascade crest 15 times.
Mechanically, the Tucker Snow-Cats worked well. Most problems were due to operator
error. One setback did occur just south of the Crater Lake National Park boundary
when the steering cable on one of the Tuckers broke. The fix was reasonably simple
except for the fact that it was dark and snowing heavily. The only major mechanical
breakdown occurred near Brown’s Creek, when the rear drive axle on one of the snowcats
snapped. A temporary repair failed so the axle had to be removed and taken into
Bend.
The trip was not a picnic. It snowed 20 of the 22 days the group was on the trail.
Several feet of new snow made hard work for the Tuckers, especially pulling skiequipped
trailers and a payload of approximately 2700 pounds. Under these harsh
conditions, both machines still were able to average 3.2 miles per gallon in fuel
consumption.
The entire route had been laboriously blazed the previous summer, using standard
snow survey yellow and red arrow markers. In several cases the group lost the trail
because of poor visibility or snow covered branches that obscured the markers.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
When the temperatures warmed, snow stuck to the Tucker’s front skis making forward
progress and steering nearly impossible. In many instances snow conditions were such
that side-hilling was impossible so the uphill side of the trail had to be manually
shoveled before the vehicles could proceed.
Although the trip concluded successfully on Friday April 19th, it was readily evident that
it was not feasible to conduct the Oregon Cascade area snow surveys in that manner.
It was felt however, that a single two-man crew could still measure the same snow
courses by transporting the snow-cat by truck to different locations along the east side
of the Cascades. The Tucker Snow-Cats proved their worth and some
recommendations based on experience gained from this trip were applied to
subsequent models.
The details of this extraordinary adventure were documented by Andrew H. Brown, in
the November, 1949 issue of The National Geographic Magazine beginning on page
691. In addition to the narrative, there are 19 photographs and a map showing the
route of travel.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 4
Photographs used herein are courtesy of Mr. R. B. Branstead, and the USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service.
Don Huffman
NOWCC-ACES
May 8, 2006

 

[mbsieg]

Release No. 0151.06
Contact:
Jim Brownlee (202) 720-4623
Sylvia Rainford (202) 720-2536
USDA AND UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA CELEBRATE 100 YEARS OF
STUDYING SNOW AND FORECASTING STREAMFLOW
Users Very Satisfied With Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Information
RENO, Nev., May 2, 2006-Agriculture Deputy Under Secretary for Natural
Resources and Environment Merlyn Carlson today recognized 100 years of studying
snow and forecasting streamflow by honoring the contributions of Dr. James E.
Church, a University of Nevada, Reno professor.
Church pioneered the techniques the U.S. Department of Agriculture and others
now use to measure snow and forecast seasonal water supplies for thousand of
producers and millions of residents in the Western and Central United States.
"Snow is a primary source of water supply in the Western United States," said
Carlson during remarks at a university reception to mark the snow survey
centennial. "USDA plays a vital role in helping private landowners manage water and
natural resources. This celebration recognizes the importance of the first steps taken
to manage water 100 years ago, that today can supply up to 80 percent of the water
resources across 12 western states."
Carlson presented University of Nevada, Reno Interim President Joe Crowley with
a centennial plaque to celebrate Church's contributions to the USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service's (USDA-NRCS) Snow Survey and Water Supply
Forecasting Program. The university will also receive two large outdoor plaques-one
will be housed on campus and the second will be located at the Nevada Department
Web site: www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov May 15, 2006
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 2
of Transportation's Visitors Center on the summit of Highway #27 between Reno and
Incline Village. This site is located near a snow course that has been measured since
1910 and is near the Mount Rose mountaintop where Church conducted most of his
snow sampling and climate research.
In 1906, USDA provided funds to the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station for
Church to establish an observatory on Mount Rose. He began his research on snow
and weather conditions to aid agriculture, including frost prediction and the
conditions that conserve snow until spring. In later years, he developed the
equipment and procedures to predict runoff.
Church's seminal research launched the early beginnings of the current USDANRCS
Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Program. Since then, this federal,
state and private cooperative program has helped water users obtain accurate water
supply information. USDA-NRCS collects snowpack and related climatic information
manually and through a sophisticated, automated system called SNOwpack
TELemetry, or SNOTEL.
Nevada is among 12 states that rely heavily on accumulated snow, or snowpack,
in their mountain ranges in winter for water supplies in the spring and summer. The
melting snowpacks produce the streams that flow from mountains in Alaska, Arizona,
California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, Utah,
Washington and Wyoming. These streams serve as a major source of drinking water
and hydropower generation and they sustain various economies, including
agriculture and recreation. The melted snow that flows into reservoirs, lakes and
rivers during spring can provide between 50 to 80 percent of the Western United
States' water supplies during the spring and arid summer.
Water supply forecasting based on snow runoff is a powerful tool for reducing the
devastating effects of flood and drought. Major sectors of the economy-agriculture,
industry, recreation and government-in this region base their water management
plans on the USDA-NRCS water supply forecasts.
In the Western United States, more than 25.5 million acres of irrigated
agriculture, with a market value of $51.1 billion, depend on snowpack information
and water supply products provided by USDA-NRCS's Snow Survey and Water
Supply Forecasting Program, according to the 2002 Agriculture Census.
In order to determine its effectiveness to users, USDA-NRCS conducted its first
survey of this program in 2005 using the American Customer Satisfaction Index
(ACSI). ACSI results showed the program received an overall score of 77 out of a
possible 100. USDA-NRCS employees received an 88 for Customer Service, a
component of the overall score. Other overall score components include usefulness,
clarity and understandability of several web-based reports. One thousand users of
the Web-based snow survey data and/or water supply forecasts were questioned.
Information about the snow survey centennial can be found at
http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/centennial.html. Additional information about USDANRCS's
Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Program can be found at
http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov
The following photos were taken during the centennial celebration:
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 3
Ken Church, great grandson of Dr. James E. Church and Merlyn Carlson, Deputy Under
Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment, USDA measure snow on Mt. Rose during
the centennial event on May 2nd.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 4
“The Study of Snow and Streamflow Forecasting Centennial” was held in Morrill Hall on the
University of Nevada, Reno campus. Mr. Merlyn Carlson, Deputy Under Secretary for Natural
Resources and Environment, USDA was the keynote speaker.
Plaque presented to University of Nevada, Reno to celebrate Church’s contribution to the
USDA-NRCS Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Program.
NRCS Snow Survey Centennial Celebration Page 5
Mt. Rose Ski Area SNOTEL site with Mt. Rose in the background…
…where it all started 100 years ago.

 

[muleman]

Interesting info on the forecasting. Most folks take water for granted until they run out.